History of Latvia

In the present territory of Latvia, the Stone Age lasted until the 2nd millennium B.C. At about 14,000 B.C. the glaciers began to recede, and the climate improved. In the 9th millennium B.C., the first inhabitants from the south arrived in the territory of present-day Latvia. They made their living by hunting and fishing. The people lived in clans and equally distributed the property they held in common. The Neolithic Era or the Late Stone Age lasted from the 4th to the 2nd millennium B.C. The number of inhabitants grew; the settlements expanded. The people gathered wild plants, and the ceramic pottery appeared in the form of clay pots and bowls.

In the 3rd and 2nd millennium B.C. the ancestors of the Baltic Finns and Balts arrived in the present territory of Latvia. The ancestors of Baltic Finns (also Livonians) arrived also from the east, and their main occupation was fishing. The ancestors of the Balts arrived also from the south and southeast. When the Metal Era began in the 2nd millennium B.C., there were already evidences of cattle breeding and agriculture in the territory of Latvia. At that time, bronze tools were introduced. Matriarchy was replaced by patriarchy because cattle breeding was mainly a man's occupation. The Balts inhabiting the territory of Latvia gradually split into tribes and formed several Baltic ethnic groups — the Kurši (Couronians), who inhabited Kurzeme, the western part of Latvia; the Sēļi (Selonians), who inhabited the west bank of the Daugava River; the Latgaļi (Lettgallians), who inhabited the right bank of the Daugava River; and the Zemgaļi (Semigallians), who inhabited the Lielupe River basin.

In the 1st millennium A.D., economic and social stratification among the population began. The first ancient cities were founded, and the administrative organisation of territories was set up. In the 9th – 12th centuries the first ancient Latvian states — the State of Semigallia, Jersika, Koknese, Tālava, and Atzele — were formed.

At the end of the 12th century, German merchants, the Catholic Church and orders of knights launched crusades against the population of Eastern Baltics and ancient Latvians. Initially, the strongest military power in the crusades was the Swordbrothers Order, which was founded in 1202. Latvian's conquest was led by Bishop Albert, who, in 1201, founded the city of Riga. Subjugation of Latvia continued throughout the 13th century.

The Livonians were the first to be conquered; the subjugation of Lettgallia followed. Mutual discord among the Latvian tribes and their inadequate armament ensured victory for the invaders. Nevertheless, many times the crusaders suffered severe defeats. In the Battle of Saule in 1236, the Semigallians, together with Lithuanians, defeated the Swordbrothers. In 1260 in the Battle of Durbe (the largest battle of the 13th century in Eastern Europe), the Lithuanian tribes, together with the Cuoronians and Estonians, defeated the recently founded Livonian Order. Semigallians were the last to give up the struggle for liberty. The territory of Latvia came under the rule of foreigners, and the inhabitants were Christianised.

From the 13th until the 16th century, the territory of Latvia was a part of Livonia, which consisted of five small states and was headed by the Archbishop of Riga and the Master of the Livonian Order. Fights between bishops and the Order were at the core of political life in Latvia until the 16th century. Riga became rich because trade between Russia and Western Europe passed through Riga. Riga was a member of the Hanseatic League, a league of Baltic merchants. The residents of Riga were predominantly merchants and craftsmen.

The land was leased to vassals and noblemen, and from their ranks landed gentry emerged. Initially, the peasants were free; however, under the burden of corvée and taxes they were impoverished and became serfs. In the 1520s the Reformation began in Latvia. As a result of this movement, freedom of religion was declared in 1555. In the middle of the 16th century, Russia began implementing her plans for conquest. From 1558 – 1583 the Livonian War was waged; it resulted in the collapse of Livonia. On the left bank of the Daugava River, the Duchy of Courland – Semigallia was formed; on the right bank of the Daugava River, the Duchy of Pārdaugava was set up, and it was incorporated into Poland. In this duchy, as well as in Riga, the Counter-Reformation began. In the 1580s the so-called "Calendar Unrest" began, however, the Counter-Reformation remained on course. Under Polish rule, the landed gentry consolidated their power, while the peasants became more and more disenfranchised.

The fight for dominance over the Baltic Sea in the 17th century had a strong impact on the territory of Latvia. While Vidzeme and Riga were under the Swedish rule until 1721, Riga became its largest city. The influence of the landed gentry increased, although simultaneously reforms were carried out which created economic stability. Restrictions were imposed on the rights of the landed gentry to punish peasants. The expropriation of manorial land and inventory of manorial and farmstead land were carried out. The landed gentry were supposed to strictly abide by the law. Fixed taxes were levied on peasants. The Lutheran Church in Vidzeme stimulated the development of Latvian education and language. The reforms in Riga also had a stabilising effect; however, the social structure of the city was rather stagnant.

The Duchy of Courland (1562—1795) was the vassal state of Poland. This republic of landed gentry was governed by the duke, but the landed gentry and their representative bodies — the Council of Dukes and the Diet — also played a leading role. The boom of the Duchy of Courland is associated with the rule of Duke Jacob (1642—1682). Manufacturing enterprises developed successfully, and enormous profit was gained from exports of grain, timber, and tar.

During Duke Jacob's rule, a powerful navy and merchant fleet were created. The Duchy of Courland possessed two colonies — a territory in Gambia and the island of Tobago. Nevertheless, Courland was not a serious rival for the powerful seafaring countries of the Netherlands, England, and Sweden.

Jacob's successors quickly squandered the accumulated capital — both financial and political. The influence of Russia continued to increase, and its handpicked officials sat on the duchy's throne. In 1795, as a result of the third partition of Poland, all of Courland was annexed to Russia.

After 1629 Lettgallia was a part of Poland. The Lettgallians assimilated with the Poles; the number of Catholics increased. The peasants became dependent on the landed gentry. Lettgallia gradually became alienated from the rest of the territory of Latvia. Also, after the first partition of Poland — Lithuania in 1772, Lettgallia was annexed to a foreign territory — the province of Vitebsk. The course of reforms in Livland was disrupted by the great Northern War (1700-1721). It resulted in the annexation of Livland and Riga to Russia.

The war was devastating; it brought about a plague epidemic unprecedented in Latvia's history. The landed gentry of Livland got back their manor houses, which the Swedish government had confiscated and they held significant offices in the public administration of Russia. All in all, the 18th century was a grievous time for Latvian peasants.

Thus, at the end of the 18th century, the territory of Latvia was completely incorporated into the Russian state.

At the beginning of the 19th century, after repeated uprisings particularly in Livland, serfdom was abolished in Courland (1817) and Livland (1819). In Lettgallia serfdom was abolished in 1861 concurrently with the abolition of serfdom in the rest of Russia. The transition to free management of farms meant buying out farm-houses from the landed gentry and fulfilling the corvée. Many Latvian peasants purchased farm-houses; but the percentage of landless peasants was considerable (61%).

At the beginning of the 19th century, many modern manufacturing enterprises developed, and in the 1830s steam engines became popular.

The second half of the 19th century was marked by a particularly rapid growth of industry, as Latvia became one of the most advanced industrialised regions of the Russian Empire. At that time, rapid social changes took place in Latvia. Along with the growth of cities, the urban population also increased. The number of ethnic Latvians living in cities grew; a powerful class of workers emerged. At the end of the 19th century, from a socio-economic and educational aspect, Latvia was much closer to Western Europe than to Russia. At the turn of the 20th century, the russification of Latvia intensified. In Latgale (Lettgallia) it was forbidden to print books using the Latin alphabet. In the middle of the 19th century, the movement of awakening called "Jaunlatvieši" (New Latvians) emerged. "Jaunlatvieši" advocated the development of Latvian culture. They urged Latvians to unite. They wished their country to prosper. The newspaper Pēterburgas avīzes was the first source to propagate their ideas. In 1868 the Riga Latvian Society was established, which was the first centre to bring Latvians together.

This national movement was unable to provide answers to many questions. That is why in the 1890s Marxist ideas as a seemingly universal ideology began to spread among workers and, partly, among the youth.

The ideological movement "Jaunā Strāva" (New Current) disseminated Marxist ideas in Latvia. In the 1920s, the revolution of 1905-1908 broke out. It was as an armed fight. Most of battles took place in the countryside. It was a national liberation struggle, and an agrarian revolution directed against the Baltic German baronial regime and the tsarist administration. The revolution was suppressed by punitive expeditions of Cossacks headed by Baltic Germans. The people's liberation movement was defeated. An impassable gap now separated the Latvians from the Baltic Germans in Latvia. The casualty rate was high. In the period from the revolution until World War I (1907-1914) there was an economic boom in Latvia, with rapid development of culture and education, and an increase in people's welfare, both in urban and rural areas, but political life was in the doldrums.

During World War I the territory of Latvia was the scene of fierce warfare. The German army occupied Courland, and Riga was evacuated. The flight of refugees was disastrous for Latvia; nearly one million inhabitants of Latvia were outside its territory. Units of Latvian Riflemen played a significant role not only in the history of Latvia but also of Russia. The valour of the riflemen could not avert the defeat of the Russian army. In 1917 the majority of riflemen joined the Bolsheviks. In 1918 the entire territory of Latvia was occupied by the German army. At the same time, the war aroused the people's strivings for independence.

Organisations such as the Latvian Provisional National Council and the Democratic Bloc — organisations fighting for Latvia's independence — were set up. When Germany capitulated, a provisional parliament — the People's Council — was formed, which proclaimed Latvia's independence on November 18, 1918.

Latvia's independence, however, had to be defended in the battles for freedom (1918-1920). Supported by the Latvian Red Riflemen the Latvian Bolsheviks occupied most of Latvia's territory. A socialist republic was founded, and bloody terror was unleashed as utopian socialist ideas were imposed. The German forces, who had recruited local Germans to fight the Bolsheviks, wanted to annihilate the independent Latvian state. In the summer of 1919, after the battle at Cēsis, the victorious march of the national army began.

A serious test of Latvia's independence was the fight against the army of Bermont in the autumn on 1919, but with the support of Great Britain and France the Latvian army won the victory. Latvia's independence was strengthened even more by the peace treaty with Russia (August 11, 1920), which renounced its claims on Latvia, and the by fact, that in 1921 Latvia's de jure independence was recognised by Russia's allies.

Independent Latvia (1918 - 1940) was a democratic republic. In 1922 the Satversme (Constitution) was adopted. Latvia had a parliament, the Saeima, and many political parties. The rights of national minorities — Russians, Germans, and Jews — were respected. The greatest politicians of this period were Kārlis Ulmanis, Zigfrīds Meierovics un Konstantīns Čakste. On May 15, 1934, President Kārlis Ulmanis staged a coup and established an authoritarian regime in the country.

More than 60 per cent of Latvia's population in those days lived in the countryside. Latvia was a predominantly agrarian country. When agrarian reform, one of the most radical in Eastern Europe, was implemented, the number of farms doubled and social tensions diminished. Agriculture ensured the country self-sufficiency in food and  enabled  Latvia to carry out an active foreign trade in  exporting bacon, flax, butter, and timber. Exports contributed to the stability of the national monetary system.  There also developed industries such as woodworking, food processing, textiles and manufacturing of technical appliances. During the years of authoritarian rule, state intervention in the economy became excessive, and attempts were made to increase the national share capital. Social policy was aimed at implementing the principle of social justice, and the social insurance system was well developed. There were notable achievements in the sphere of education and culture; many indicators were on a par with the highest European standards.

Foreign policy was oriented towards peaceful co-existence and ensuring the country's independence.  As a member of the League of Nations Latvia tried to follow a policy of strict neutrality. Undeniably, the twenty years of independence were a bright period when Latvia prospered and flourished.

Latvia's fate in World War II was determined by the secret protocol of the treaty concluded between Germany and the USSR on August 23, 1939, according to which Latvia was included into the Soviet sphere of influence. Latvia was forced to allow the presence of the Red Army on its territory, and on June 17, 1940, the Soviet armed forces occupied Latvia. A puppet government was set up, mock "democratic elections" were held and Latvia was annexed to the USSR. Sovietisation involved not only nationalisation of property but also ruthless terror which culminated on June 14, 1941, with the deportation of 14,000 Latvian citizens to Siberia.

In 1941 Latvia was occupied by Nazi troops. The hope of restoring independent Latvia, cherished by many Latvians, did not come true. The occupation rule enforced the policy of ruthless terror, the most brutal manifestation of which was the Holocaust in Latvia. The resistance movement consisted of two groups. Red partisans, inspired by the USSR, represented the Communist wing, while patriots in the national resistance movement struggled for the renewal of Latvia's independent statehood and looked forward to support from the Western allied powers. The Latvian legion fought in the ranks of the Waffen SS, militarised formations established by Nazi Germany, but Latvian riflemen units fought in the Red Army.  As a result of Word War II, Latvia lost 450, 000 of its inhabitants, its economy was also devastated. Instead of liberation, World War II brought almost half a century of Soviet occupation.

During the years of Soviet occupation  (1944/1945-1991), Latvia seemingly had all the elements of a sovereign state; however, it had only restricted autonomy at best. Accelerated industrialisation and collectivisation in agriculture were carried out in Latvia; the heavy influx of workers from other regions of the USSR greatly hastened the Russification of Latvia. The worst mass repression took place in 1949, when more than 40,000 inhabitants were deported to remote regions of the USSR. In the beginning, repression was directed against the national partisans, but later also against dissidents.  At the end of the 1950s, the national communists opposed the accelerated building of socialism; they advocated "socialism with a Latvian face". However, their efforts were stopped in 1959. Beginning in the 1960's, Latvia's government was clearly pro-Muscovite and neo-Stalinist. On the one hand, with regard to its economic, educational and cultural level, Latvia was one of the most advanced regions of the USSR. On the other hand, because of the lack of political rights, ethnic oppression and the continuous presence of large Soviet army contingents, Latvia, along with Estonia and Lithuania, was among those Soviet republics which were ready for drastic changes.

Since the beginning of Gorbachev's perestroika, a new national awakening movement began in Latvia. Unofficial public organisations sprang up, which organised non-violent protests. The leadership of the Latvian Communist party changed, and the new one was much more liberal. The Popular Front of Latvia, mass organisation uniting hundreds of thousands of inhabitants of Latvia was established. In 1989 the Popular Front declared that its goal was to renew the independent statehood of Latvia. As the Popular Front turned into a more meaningful political force, many democratic reforms were carried out. On May 4, 1990, the Declaration of Latvia's Independence was passed, which set a transition period to the complete restoration of Latvia's statehood. Actually, a dual government situation developed in Latvia, and the confrontation with the central power in Moscow intensified. In January 1991 there was an abortive attempt to overthrow the government supported by the people. In August of the same year the putch in Moscow accelerated the collapse of the USSR.  On August 21, 1991, the Supreme Council of the Republic of Latvia passed the constitutional law "On the Statehood of the Republic of Latvia"; international recognition of the independent statehood of Latvia followed soon thereafter.

During the period from 1991 to 2001, Latvia strengthened its democratic institutions, and new political parties emerged. In 1993 the Latvian Saeima renewed its functioning.  By 2001, three convocations of the parliament had been elected, and eight changes of government had taken place. Presidents of Latvia were elected.  Guntis Ulmanis became the first President of Latvia, and the current President of Latvia, Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga, was elected to her post in 1999.  In 1994 the Russian troops left Latvia. Many economic reforms were carried out, and the national currency became stable.  Despite the above-mentioned signs of progress, many social problems characteristic of a transition period still exist in Latvia, e.g., a low living standard, insufficient income, a high unemployment rate, complex demographic problems and substandard conditions in education, research and health care.